KnowledgeSetKnowledgeSet
Pricing
Log InGet Started

The learning loop

See all features →
01

Build understanding

Clear explanations. Connected ideas. Help when you need it.

02

Put it into practice

Try it, get feedback, and learn from every attempt.

03

Know what to work on next

See your progress and find a clearer next step.

Key Stage 3
Coming soon
GCSE
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
  • Biology (Combined)
  • Chemistry (Combined)
  • Physics (Combined)
  • Maths
  • Geography
IGCSE
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
A-Level
  • Biology
  • Chemistry
  • Physics
11+
Coming soon
Product
See all features →

Build understanding

Clear explanations. Connected ideas. Help when you need it.

Put it into practice

Try it, get feedback, and learn from every attempt.

Know what to work on next

See your progress and find a clearer next step.

Subjects
Pricing
Log InGet Started
HomeSubjectsAnalyticsSageAILessonsNotesFlashcardsQuestionsFeedback
Notes/A-Level/Chemistry/Edexcel/Edexcel A-level Chemistry — 9CH0

Syllabus

Edexcel A-level Chemistry — 9CH0

    • •Atomic particles and structure1.1
    • •Relative masses and charges of subatomic particles1.2
    • •Atomic number and mass number1.3
    • •Counting subatomic particles in atoms, molecules and ions1.4
    • •Isotopes1.5
    • •Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass1.6
    • •Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass1.7
    • •Isotopic abundances and relative atomic mass from mass spectra1.8
    • •Mass spectra of diatomic molecules1.9
    • •Molecular mass from the molecular ion peak1.10
    • •First and successive ionisation energies1.11
    • •Factors affecting ionisation energy1.12
    • •Ionisation energy trends across a period1.13
    • •Ionisation energy trends down a group1.14
    • •Spectroscopic evidence for shells and subshells1.15
    • •Electron capacities of the first four shells1.16
    • •Orbitals and electron spin1.17
    • •Shapes of s and p orbitals1.18
    • •Electron capacities of s, p and d subshells1.19
    • •Subshell filling and electron pairing1.20
    • •Electronic configurations of atoms and ions1.21
    • •The s, p and d blocks1.22
    • •Electronic configuration and chemical properties1.23
    • •The meaning of periodicity1.24
    • •Period 2 and 3 property trends1.25
    • •Using data to illustrate periodicity1.26
      • •The nature of ionic bonding2.1
      • •Ionic radius, charge and bond strength2.2
      • •Ion formation by electron loss and gain2.3
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of ions2.4
      • •Trends in ionic radii2.5
      • •Experimental evidence for ions2.6
      • •The nature of covalent bonding2.7
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent and coordinate bonds2.8
      • •Covalent bond lengths and strengths2.9
      • •Electron-pair repulsion and molecular shape2.10
      • •Shapes and bond angles with up to six electron pairs2.11
      • •Predicting unfamiliar molecular shapes and bond angles2.12
      • •Electronegativity2.13
      • •The bonding continuum and bond polarity2.14
      • •Predicting molecular polarity2.15
      • •Types of intermolecular forces2.16
      • •Hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride2.17
      • •Hydrogen bonding and anomalous properties of water2.18
      • •Predicting hydrogen bonding2.19
      • •Intermolecular forces and boiling temperature trends2.20
      • •Choosing solvents using intermolecular forces2.21
      • •The nature of metallic bonding2.22
      • •Giant ionic, covalent and metallic lattices2.23
      • •Simple molecular structures2.24
      • •Diamond, graphite and graphene2.25
      • •Deducing structure and bonding from data2.26
      • •Predicting physical properties from structure and bonding2.27
    • •The meaning of oxidation number3.1
    • •Calculating oxidation numbers3.2
    • •Electron transfer and changes in oxidation number3.3
    • •Oxidation as electron loss and reduction as electron gain3.4
    • •Oxidising agents as electron acceptors3.5
    • •Reducing agents as electron donors3.6
    • •Disproportionation3.7
    • •Classifying redox and disproportionation reactions3.8
    • •Roman numerals for oxidation states3.9
    • •Writing formulae from oxidation numbers3.10
    • •Metals, positive ions and oxidation3.11
    • •Non-metals, negative ions and reduction3.12
    • •Ionic half-equations and full ionic equations3.13
      • •Group 2 ionisation energy trends4.1
      • •Group 2 reactivity trends4.2
      • •Reactions of Group 2 elements with oxygen, chlorine and water4.3
      • •Reactions of Group 2 oxides and hydroxides4.4
      • •Solubility trends of Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates4.5
      • •Thermal stability of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates4.6
      • •Flame colours and electron transitions4.7
      • •Investigating thermal decomposition and flame colours4.8
      • •Physical property and electronegativity trends in Group 74.9
      • •Group 7 reactivity trends4.10
      • •Halogen displacement reactions4.11
      • •Oxidation and disproportionation reactions of halogens4.12
      • •Reactions and tests involving halides and hydrogen halides4.13
      • •Predicting fluorine and astatine chemistry4.14
      • •Tests for inorganic ions4.15
    • •The mole as the unit of amount of substance5.1
    • •Calculations using the Avogadro constant5.2
    • •Molar mass5.3
    • •Empirical and molecular formulae5.4
    • •Determining formulae from experimental data and gas measurements5.5
    • •Balanced full and ionic equations with state symbols5.6
    • •Amount calculations using mass, gas volume and solution concentration5.7
    • •Reacting mass calculations5.8
    • •Reacting gas volumes and amounts of substance5.9
    • •Reacting gas volumes using molar volume5.10
    • •Solution concentrations and acid-base titrations5.11
    • •Measurement errors, uncertainties and sources of error5.12
    • •Minimising percentage error and uncertainty5.13
    • •Percentage yield and atom economy5.14
    • •Relating equations to test-tube observations5.15
    • •Practical hazards, risks and precautions5.16
      • •Hydrocarbons6.1
      • •Representing organic molecules using formulae6.2
      • •Homologous series and functional groups6.3
      • •IUPAC nomenclature6.4
      • •Classifying organic reactions6.5
      • •Structural isomerism6.6
      • •Stereoisomerism and E/Z isomers6.7
      • •The general formula of alkanes6.8
      • •Saturated alkanes and cycloalkanes6.9
      • •Fractional distillation, cracking and reforming6.10
      • •Pollutants from alkane combustion6.11
      • •Health and environmental effects of combustion pollutants6.12
      • •Catalytic converters and pollution control6.13
      • •Renewable alternative fuels6.14
      • •Radicals and homolytic bond fission6.15
      • •Alkane combustion and radical substitution mechanisms6.16
      • •Limitations of radical substitution in synthesis6.17
      • •The general formula of alkenes6.18
      • •Unsaturated alkenes and cycloalkenes6.19
      • •Sigma and pi bonding in alkenes6.20
      • •Electrophiles6.21
      • •Addition and oxidation reactions of alkenes6.22
      • •Heterolytic bond fission6.23
      • •Electrophilic addition mechanisms and carbocation stability6.24
      • •Testing for a carbon-carbon double bond6.25
      • •Addition polymerisation and repeat units6.26
      • •Separating and processing waste polymers6.27
      • •Sustainable use of polymer materials6.28
      • •Biodegradable polymers and controlling incineration gases6.29
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.30
      • •Nucleophiles6.31
      • •Substitution and elimination reactions of halogenoalkanes6.32
      • •Comparing halogenoalkane hydrolysis rates experimentally6.33
      • •Reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.34
      • •Carbon-halogen bond enthalpy and reactivity6.35
      • •Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms of primary halogenoalkanes6.36
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols6.37
      • •Combustion, halogenation, oxidation and dehydration of alcohols6.38
      • •Preparing and purifying liquid organic compounds6.39
      • •Interpreting molecular ions and fragmentation patterns7.1
      • •Identifying functional groups using infrared spectroscopy7.2
    • •Standard conditions8.1
    • •Enthalpy change at constant pressure8.2
    • •Enthalpy level diagrams8.3
    • •Standard enthalpies of reaction, formation, combustion and neutralisation8.4
    • •Calorimetry experiments, assumptions and errors8.5
    • •Calculating molar enthalpy changes from experimental data8.6
    • •Constructing Hess cycles8.7
    • •Calculating enthalpy changes using Hess's law8.8
    • •Bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy8.9
    • •Reaction enthalpies from mean bond enthalpies and their limitations8.10
    • •Determining mean bond enthalpies from reaction enthalpies8.11
    • •Collision theory and factors affecting reaction rate9.1
    • •Activation energy and successful collisions9.2
    • •Calculating reaction rates from times and graphs9.3
    • •Temperature and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.4
    • •Catalysts and alternative reaction pathways9.5
    • •Catalysed and uncatalysed reaction profiles9.6
    • •Catalysts and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.7
    • •Heterogeneous catalysis in industrial gas reactions9.8
    • •Economic benefits of industrial catalysts9.9
    • •Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium10.1
    • •Effects of temperature, concentration and pressure on equilibrium10.2
    • •Industrial compromises between yield and reaction rate10.3
    • •Writing Kc expressions10.4
    • •Writing Kp expressions11.1
    • •Calculating Kc and Kp from experimental data11.2
    • •Temperature changes and equilibrium constants11.3
    • •Equilibrium position and temperature-dependent constants11.4
    • •Why concentration, pressure and catalysts do not change equilibrium constants11.5
    • •Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases12.1
    • •Acid-base reactions as proton transfer12.2
    • •Conjugate acid-base pairs12.3
    • •The definition of pH12.4
    • •Calculating pH from hydrogen ion concentration12.5
    • •Calculating hydrogen ion concentration from pH12.6
    • •Strong and weak acids12.7
    • •Calculating the pH of strong acids12.8
    • •The acid dissociation constant Ka12.9
    • •Calculating the pH of weak acids12.10
    • •The ionic product of water Kw12.11
    • •Calculating the pH of strong bases12.12
    • •pKa and pKw12.13
    • •Comparing experimental pH values and dilution effects12.14
    • •Determining Ka from experimental pH and acid mass12.15
    • •Drawing and interpreting acid-base titration curves12.16
    • •Choosing indicators from titration curves12.17
    • •The meaning of a buffer solution12.18
    • •Buffer action12.19
    • •Calculating buffer pH12.20
    • •Preparing buffers of a specified pH12.21
    • •Buffer regions and determining Ka from titration curves12.22
    • •Neutralisation enthalpies of strong and weak acids12.23
    • •Carbonic acid and hydrogencarbonate buffering in blood12.24
      • •The definition of lattice energy13.1
      • •Enthalpy of atomisation and electron affinity13.2
      • •Born–Haber cycles and calculations13.3
      • •Lattice energy and ionic bond strength13.4
      • •Experimental and theoretical lattice energies and covalent character13.5
      • •Polarisation of ions13.6
      • •Factors affecting cation polarising power13.7
      • •Factors affecting anion polarisability13.8
      • •Enthalpies of solution and hydration13.9
      • •Energy cycles involving solution, hydration and lattice energy13.10
      • •Ionic charge and radius effects on lattice and hydration energies13.11
      • •Why enthalpy alone does not determine feasibility13.12
      • •Entropy, disorder and the direction of change13.13
      • •Entropy changes in physical and chemical processes13.14
      • •System, surroundings and total entropy change13.15
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the system13.16
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the surroundings and total entropy13.17
      • •Gibbs energy, enthalpy and entropy13.18
      • •Predicting feasibility and feasible temperatures using Gibbs energy13.19
      • •Gibbs energy and equilibrium constants13.20
      • •Why negative Gibbs energy does not guarantee a reaction13.21
      • •Kinetic inhibition of thermodynamically feasible reactions13.22
    • •Electron transfer in s-, p- and d-block redox reactions14.1
    • •Oxidation-number changes in s-, p- and d-block reactions14.2
    • •The meaning of standard electrode potential14.3
    • •Standard conditions for electrode potentials14.4
    • •The standard hydrogen electrode and reference potentials14.5
    • •Measuring standard electrode potentials14.6
    • •Calculating standard cell emf14.7
    • •Writing conventional cell diagrams14.8
    • •Conditions and measured electrode potentials14.9
    • •Predicting reaction feasibility using electrode potentials14.10
    • •Cell emf, total entropy change and equilibrium constants14.11
    • •Limitations of electrode-potential predictions14.12
    • •The electrochemical series14.13
    • •Disproportionation and electrode potentials14.14
    • •Electrode potentials and storage cells14.15
    • •Fuel cells and electrical energy14.16
    • •Electrode reactions in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells14.17
    • •Redox titration calculations14.18
    • •Methods used in redox titrations14.19
      • •Electronic configurations of Period 4 d-block atoms and ions15.1
      • •The definition of a transition metal15.2
      • •Variable oxidation states in transition metals15.3
      • •The meaning of a ligand15.4
      • •Coordinate bonding in complex ions15.5
      • •The structure of a complex ion15.6
      • •Coloured transition-metal ions in solution15.7
      • •Ligand-induced d-orbital splitting and colour15.8
      • •Why some metal ions and complexes are colourless15.9
      • •Factors causing colour changes in transition-metal ions15.10
      • •Coordination number15.11
      • •Water, hydroxide and ammonia as monodentate ligands15.12
      • •Octahedral complexes with coordination number six15.13
      • •Tetrahedral complexes with large ligands15.14
      • •Square planar complexes and cis-platin15.15
      • •Cis-platin isomerism and cancer treatment15.16
      • •Bidentate and multidentate ligands15.17
      • •Haemoglobin as an iron(II) complex15.18
      • •Carbon monoxide ligand exchange in haemoglobin15.19
      • •Colours of vanadium oxidation states15.20
      • •Vanadium redox reactions and electrode potentials15.21
      • •Redox interconversions of chromium ions15.22
      • •The chromate-dichromate equilibrium15.23
      • •Metal-ion reactions with hydroxide and ammonia15.24
      • •Distinguishing ligand exchange from amphoteric behaviour15.25
      • •Ligand exchange and colour changes in copper and cobalt complexes15.26
      • •Ligand size, charge and coordination-number changes15.27
      • •The chelate effect and entropy15.28
      • •Transition metals as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts15.29
      • •The action of heterogeneous catalysts15.30
      • •Vanadium(V) oxide catalysis in the contact process15.31
      • •Catalytic converters: adsorption, reaction and desorption15.32
      • •Homogeneous catalysts and intermediates15.33
      • •Iron(II) catalysis of the iodide-peroxodisulfate reaction15.34
      • •Manganese(II) autocatalysis of the manganate(VII)-ethanedioate reaction15.35
    • •Key terms in reaction kinetics and catalysis16.1
    • •Determining and using rate equations16.2
    • •Selecting experimental techniques for rate measurements16.3
    • •Initial-rate and continuous-monitoring experiments16.4
    • •First-order reaction rates and half-lives from graphs16.5
    • •Determining reaction orders from graphs16.6
    • •Determining reaction orders from initial-rate data16.7
    • •Iodination of propanone: orders and mechanism16.8
    • •Rate equations and rate-determining steps16.9
    • •Deducing reaction mechanisms from kinetic and stoichiometric data16.10
    • •Rate evidence for SN1 and SN2 hydrolysis mechanisms16.11
    • •Determining activation energy using graphical methods16.12
      • •Chirality and optical isomerism17.1
      • •Asymmetric carbon atoms and non-superimposable mirror images17.2
      • •Optical activity and plane-polarised light17.3
      • •Racemic mixtures17.4
      • •Optical evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms17.5
      • •Identifying aldehyde and ketone functional groups17.6
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carbonyl compounds17.7
      • •Reactions and tests of aldehydes and ketones17.8
      • •Identifying the carboxylic acid functional group17.9
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carboxylic acids17.10
      • •Preparing carboxylic acids17.11
      • •Reactions of carboxylic acids17.12
      • •Identifying acyl chloride and ester functional groups17.13
      • •Reactions of acyl chlorides17.14
      • •Acidic and alkaline hydrolysis of esters17.15
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyesters17.16
      • •Kekulé and delocalised models of benzene18.1
      • •Evidence for delocalised bonding in benzene18.2
      • •Resistance of benzene to bromination18.3
      • •Combustion and substitution reactions of benzene18.4
      • •Electrophilic substitution mechanisms of benzene18.5
      • •The reaction of phenol with bromine water18.6
      • •Comparing the bromination of phenol and benzene18.7
      • •Identifying amines, amides and amino acids18.8
      • •Reactions of primary aliphatic amines18.9
      • •Comparing the basicity of ammonia and amines18.10
      • •Preparing primary aliphatic amines18.11
      • •Reducing aromatic nitro-compounds to amines18.12
      • •Preparing amides from acyl chlorides18.13
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyamides18.14
      • •Repeat units of condensation polymers18.15
      • •Zwitterions, acid-base behaviour and optical activity of amino acids18.16
      • •Peptide bonds, protein hydrolysis and amino acid separation18.17
      • •Deducing organic formulae and structures from combined evidence18.18
      • •Planning multistep organic syntheses18.19
      • •Extending carbon chains using Grignard reagents18.20
      • •Selecting practical procedures and controlling risks in synthesis18.21
      • •Preparing and purifying organic compounds18.22
      • •Accurate mass spectrometry and molecular identification19.1
      • •Carbon-13 NMR and carbon environments19.2
      • •Interpreting carbon-13 NMR spectra19.3
      • •High-resolution proton NMR and hydrogen environments19.4
      • •Interpreting proton NMR shifts, integrals and splitting patterns19.5
      • •Mobile and stationary phases in chromatography19.6
      • •Calculating Rf values19.7
      • •HPLC, gas chromatography and coupled mass spectrometry19.8

Syllabus

Edexcel A-level Chemistry — 9CH0

    • •Atomic particles and structure1.1
    • •Relative masses and charges of subatomic particles1.2
    • •Atomic number and mass number1.3
    • •Counting subatomic particles in atoms, molecules and ions1.4
    • •Isotopes1.5
    • •Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass1.6
    • •Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass1.7
    • •Isotopic abundances and relative atomic mass from mass spectra1.8
    • •Mass spectra of diatomic molecules1.9
    • •Molecular mass from the molecular ion peak1.10
    • •First and successive ionisation energies1.11
    • •Factors affecting ionisation energy1.12
    • •Ionisation energy trends across a period1.13
    • •Ionisation energy trends down a group1.14
    • •Spectroscopic evidence for shells and subshells1.15
    • •Electron capacities of the first four shells1.16
    • •Orbitals and electron spin1.17
    • •Shapes of s and p orbitals1.18
    • •Electron capacities of s, p and d subshells1.19
    • •Subshell filling and electron pairing1.20
    • •Electronic configurations of atoms and ions1.21
    • •The s, p and d blocks1.22
    • •Electronic configuration and chemical properties1.23
    • •The meaning of periodicity1.24
    • •Period 2 and 3 property trends1.25
    • •Using data to illustrate periodicity1.26
      • •The nature of ionic bonding2.1
      • •Ionic radius, charge and bond strength2.2
      • •Ion formation by electron loss and gain2.3
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of ions2.4
      • •Trends in ionic radii2.5
      • •Experimental evidence for ions2.6
      • •The nature of covalent bonding2.7
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent and coordinate bonds2.8
      • •Covalent bond lengths and strengths2.9
      • •Electron-pair repulsion and molecular shape2.10
      • •Shapes and bond angles with up to six electron pairs2.11
      • •Predicting unfamiliar molecular shapes and bond angles2.12
      • •Electronegativity2.13
      • •The bonding continuum and bond polarity2.14
      • •Predicting molecular polarity2.15
      • •Types of intermolecular forces2.16
      • •Hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride2.17
      • •Hydrogen bonding and anomalous properties of water2.18
      • •Predicting hydrogen bonding2.19
      • •Intermolecular forces and boiling temperature trends2.20
      • •Choosing solvents using intermolecular forces2.21
      • •The nature of metallic bonding2.22
      • •Giant ionic, covalent and metallic lattices2.23
      • •Simple molecular structures2.24
      • •Diamond, graphite and graphene2.25
      • •Deducing structure and bonding from data2.26
      • •Predicting physical properties from structure and bonding2.27
    • •The meaning of oxidation number3.1
    • •Calculating oxidation numbers3.2
    • •Electron transfer and changes in oxidation number3.3
    • •Oxidation as electron loss and reduction as electron gain3.4
    • •Oxidising agents as electron acceptors3.5
    • •Reducing agents as electron donors3.6
    • •Disproportionation3.7
    • •Classifying redox and disproportionation reactions3.8
    • •Roman numerals for oxidation states3.9
    • •Writing formulae from oxidation numbers3.10
    • •Metals, positive ions and oxidation3.11
    • •Non-metals, negative ions and reduction3.12
    • •Ionic half-equations and full ionic equations3.13
      • •Group 2 ionisation energy trends4.1
      • •Group 2 reactivity trends4.2
      • •Reactions of Group 2 elements with oxygen, chlorine and water4.3
      • •Reactions of Group 2 oxides and hydroxides4.4
      • •Solubility trends of Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates4.5
      • •Thermal stability of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates4.6
      • •Flame colours and electron transitions4.7
      • •Investigating thermal decomposition and flame colours4.8
      • •Physical property and electronegativity trends in Group 74.9
      • •Group 7 reactivity trends4.10
      • •Halogen displacement reactions4.11
      • •Oxidation and disproportionation reactions of halogens4.12
      • •Reactions and tests involving halides and hydrogen halides4.13
      • •Predicting fluorine and astatine chemistry4.14
      • •Tests for inorganic ions4.15
    • •The mole as the unit of amount of substance5.1
    • •Calculations using the Avogadro constant5.2
    • •Molar mass5.3
    • •Empirical and molecular formulae5.4
    • •Determining formulae from experimental data and gas measurements5.5
    • •Balanced full and ionic equations with state symbols5.6
    • •Amount calculations using mass, gas volume and solution concentration5.7
    • •Reacting mass calculations5.8
    • •Reacting gas volumes and amounts of substance5.9
    • •Reacting gas volumes using molar volume5.10
    • •Solution concentrations and acid-base titrations5.11
    • •Measurement errors, uncertainties and sources of error5.12
    • •Minimising percentage error and uncertainty5.13
    • •Percentage yield and atom economy5.14
    • •Relating equations to test-tube observations5.15
    • •Practical hazards, risks and precautions5.16
      • •Hydrocarbons6.1
      • •Representing organic molecules using formulae6.2
      • •Homologous series and functional groups6.3
      • •IUPAC nomenclature6.4
      • •Classifying organic reactions6.5
      • •Structural isomerism6.6
      • •Stereoisomerism and E/Z isomers6.7
      • •The general formula of alkanes6.8
      • •Saturated alkanes and cycloalkanes6.9
      • •Fractional distillation, cracking and reforming6.10
      • •Pollutants from alkane combustion6.11
      • •Health and environmental effects of combustion pollutants6.12
      • •Catalytic converters and pollution control6.13
      • •Renewable alternative fuels6.14
      • •Radicals and homolytic bond fission6.15
      • •Alkane combustion and radical substitution mechanisms6.16
      • •Limitations of radical substitution in synthesis6.17
      • •The general formula of alkenes6.18
      • •Unsaturated alkenes and cycloalkenes6.19
      • •Sigma and pi bonding in alkenes6.20
      • •Electrophiles6.21
      • •Addition and oxidation reactions of alkenes6.22
      • •Heterolytic bond fission6.23
      • •Electrophilic addition mechanisms and carbocation stability6.24
      • •Testing for a carbon-carbon double bond6.25
      • •Addition polymerisation and repeat units6.26
      • •Separating and processing waste polymers6.27
      • •Sustainable use of polymer materials6.28
      • •Biodegradable polymers and controlling incineration gases6.29
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.30
      • •Nucleophiles6.31
      • •Substitution and elimination reactions of halogenoalkanes6.32
      • •Comparing halogenoalkane hydrolysis rates experimentally6.33
      • •Reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.34
      • •Carbon-halogen bond enthalpy and reactivity6.35
      • •Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms of primary halogenoalkanes6.36
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols6.37
      • •Combustion, halogenation, oxidation and dehydration of alcohols6.38
      • •Preparing and purifying liquid organic compounds6.39
      • •Interpreting molecular ions and fragmentation patterns7.1
      • •Identifying functional groups using infrared spectroscopy7.2
    • •Standard conditions8.1
    • •Enthalpy change at constant pressure8.2
    • •Enthalpy level diagrams8.3
    • •Standard enthalpies of reaction, formation, combustion and neutralisation8.4
    • •Calorimetry experiments, assumptions and errors8.5
    • •Calculating molar enthalpy changes from experimental data8.6
    • •Constructing Hess cycles8.7
    • •Calculating enthalpy changes using Hess's law8.8
    • •Bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy8.9
    • •Reaction enthalpies from mean bond enthalpies and their limitations8.10
    • •Determining mean bond enthalpies from reaction enthalpies8.11
    • •Collision theory and factors affecting reaction rate9.1
    • •Activation energy and successful collisions9.2
    • •Calculating reaction rates from times and graphs9.3
    • •Temperature and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.4
    • •Catalysts and alternative reaction pathways9.5
    • •Catalysed and uncatalysed reaction profiles9.6
    • •Catalysts and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.7
    • •Heterogeneous catalysis in industrial gas reactions9.8
    • •Economic benefits of industrial catalysts9.9
    • •Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium10.1
    • •Effects of temperature, concentration and pressure on equilibrium10.2
    • •Industrial compromises between yield and reaction rate10.3
    • •Writing Kc expressions10.4
    • •Writing Kp expressions11.1
    • •Calculating Kc and Kp from experimental data11.2
    • •Temperature changes and equilibrium constants11.3
    • •Equilibrium position and temperature-dependent constants11.4
    • •Why concentration, pressure and catalysts do not change equilibrium constants11.5
    • •Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases12.1
    • •Acid-base reactions as proton transfer12.2
    • •Conjugate acid-base pairs12.3
    • •The definition of pH12.4
    • •Calculating pH from hydrogen ion concentration12.5
    • •Calculating hydrogen ion concentration from pH12.6
    • •Strong and weak acids12.7
    • •Calculating the pH of strong acids12.8
    • •The acid dissociation constant Ka12.9
    • •Calculating the pH of weak acids12.10
    • •The ionic product of water Kw12.11
    • •Calculating the pH of strong bases12.12
    • •pKa and pKw12.13
    • •Comparing experimental pH values and dilution effects12.14
    • •Determining Ka from experimental pH and acid mass12.15
    • •Drawing and interpreting acid-base titration curves12.16
    • •Choosing indicators from titration curves12.17
    • •The meaning of a buffer solution12.18
    • •Buffer action12.19
    • •Calculating buffer pH12.20
    • •Preparing buffers of a specified pH12.21
    • •Buffer regions and determining Ka from titration curves12.22
    • •Neutralisation enthalpies of strong and weak acids12.23
    • •Carbonic acid and hydrogencarbonate buffering in blood12.24
      • •The definition of lattice energy13.1
      • •Enthalpy of atomisation and electron affinity13.2
      • •Born–Haber cycles and calculations13.3
      • •Lattice energy and ionic bond strength13.4
      • •Experimental and theoretical lattice energies and covalent character13.5
      • •Polarisation of ions13.6
      • •Factors affecting cation polarising power13.7
      • •Factors affecting anion polarisability13.8
      • •Enthalpies of solution and hydration13.9
      • •Energy cycles involving solution, hydration and lattice energy13.10
      • •Ionic charge and radius effects on lattice and hydration energies13.11
      • •Why enthalpy alone does not determine feasibility13.12
      • •Entropy, disorder and the direction of change13.13
      • •Entropy changes in physical and chemical processes13.14
      • •System, surroundings and total entropy change13.15
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the system13.16
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the surroundings and total entropy13.17
      • •Gibbs energy, enthalpy and entropy13.18
      • •Predicting feasibility and feasible temperatures using Gibbs energy13.19
      • •Gibbs energy and equilibrium constants13.20
      • •Why negative Gibbs energy does not guarantee a reaction13.21
      • •Kinetic inhibition of thermodynamically feasible reactions13.22
    • •Electron transfer in s-, p- and d-block redox reactions14.1
    • •Oxidation-number changes in s-, p- and d-block reactions14.2
    • •The meaning of standard electrode potential14.3
    • •Standard conditions for electrode potentials14.4
    • •The standard hydrogen electrode and reference potentials14.5
    • •Measuring standard electrode potentials14.6
    • •Calculating standard cell emf14.7
    • •Writing conventional cell diagrams14.8
    • •Conditions and measured electrode potentials14.9
    • •Predicting reaction feasibility using electrode potentials14.10
    • •Cell emf, total entropy change and equilibrium constants14.11
    • •Limitations of electrode-potential predictions14.12
    • •The electrochemical series14.13
    • •Disproportionation and electrode potentials14.14
    • •Electrode potentials and storage cells14.15
    • •Fuel cells and electrical energy14.16
    • •Electrode reactions in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells14.17
    • •Redox titration calculations14.18
    • •Methods used in redox titrations14.19
      • •Electronic configurations of Period 4 d-block atoms and ions15.1
      • •The definition of a transition metal15.2
      • •Variable oxidation states in transition metals15.3
      • •The meaning of a ligand15.4
      • •Coordinate bonding in complex ions15.5
      • •The structure of a complex ion15.6
      • •Coloured transition-metal ions in solution15.7
      • •Ligand-induced d-orbital splitting and colour15.8
      • •Why some metal ions and complexes are colourless15.9
      • •Factors causing colour changes in transition-metal ions15.10
      • •Coordination number15.11
      • •Water, hydroxide and ammonia as monodentate ligands15.12
      • •Octahedral complexes with coordination number six15.13
      • •Tetrahedral complexes with large ligands15.14
      • •Square planar complexes and cis-platin15.15
      • •Cis-platin isomerism and cancer treatment15.16
      • •Bidentate and multidentate ligands15.17
      • •Haemoglobin as an iron(II) complex15.18
      • •Carbon monoxide ligand exchange in haemoglobin15.19
      • •Colours of vanadium oxidation states15.20
      • •Vanadium redox reactions and electrode potentials15.21
      • •Redox interconversions of chromium ions15.22
      • •The chromate-dichromate equilibrium15.23
      • •Metal-ion reactions with hydroxide and ammonia15.24
      • •Distinguishing ligand exchange from amphoteric behaviour15.25
      • •Ligand exchange and colour changes in copper and cobalt complexes15.26
      • •Ligand size, charge and coordination-number changes15.27
      • •The chelate effect and entropy15.28
      • •Transition metals as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts15.29
      • •The action of heterogeneous catalysts15.30
      • •Vanadium(V) oxide catalysis in the contact process15.31
      • •Catalytic converters: adsorption, reaction and desorption15.32
      • •Homogeneous catalysts and intermediates15.33
      • •Iron(II) catalysis of the iodide-peroxodisulfate reaction15.34
      • •Manganese(II) autocatalysis of the manganate(VII)-ethanedioate reaction15.35
    • •Key terms in reaction kinetics and catalysis16.1
    • •Determining and using rate equations16.2
    • •Selecting experimental techniques for rate measurements16.3
    • •Initial-rate and continuous-monitoring experiments16.4
    • •First-order reaction rates and half-lives from graphs16.5
    • •Determining reaction orders from graphs16.6
    • •Determining reaction orders from initial-rate data16.7
    • •Iodination of propanone: orders and mechanism16.8
    • •Rate equations and rate-determining steps16.9
    • •Deducing reaction mechanisms from kinetic and stoichiometric data16.10
    • •Rate evidence for SN1 and SN2 hydrolysis mechanisms16.11
    • •Determining activation energy using graphical methods16.12
      • •Chirality and optical isomerism17.1
      • •Asymmetric carbon atoms and non-superimposable mirror images17.2
      • •Optical activity and plane-polarised light17.3
      • •Racemic mixtures17.4
      • •Optical evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms17.5
      • •Identifying aldehyde and ketone functional groups17.6
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carbonyl compounds17.7
      • •Reactions and tests of aldehydes and ketones17.8
      • •Identifying the carboxylic acid functional group17.9
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carboxylic acids17.10
      • •Preparing carboxylic acids17.11
      • •Reactions of carboxylic acids17.12
      • •Identifying acyl chloride and ester functional groups17.13
      • •Reactions of acyl chlorides17.14
      • •Acidic and alkaline hydrolysis of esters17.15
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyesters17.16
      • •Kekulé and delocalised models of benzene18.1
      • •Evidence for delocalised bonding in benzene18.2
      • •Resistance of benzene to bromination18.3
      • •Combustion and substitution reactions of benzene18.4
      • •Electrophilic substitution mechanisms of benzene18.5
      • •The reaction of phenol with bromine water18.6
      • •Comparing the bromination of phenol and benzene18.7
      • •Identifying amines, amides and amino acids18.8
      • •Reactions of primary aliphatic amines18.9
      • •Comparing the basicity of ammonia and amines18.10
      • •Preparing primary aliphatic amines18.11
      • •Reducing aromatic nitro-compounds to amines18.12
      • •Preparing amides from acyl chlorides18.13
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyamides18.14
      • •Repeat units of condensation polymers18.15
      • •Zwitterions, acid-base behaviour and optical activity of amino acids18.16
      • •Peptide bonds, protein hydrolysis and amino acid separation18.17
      • •Deducing organic formulae and structures from combined evidence18.18
      • •Planning multistep organic syntheses18.19
      • •Extending carbon chains using Grignard reagents18.20
      • •Selecting practical procedures and controlling risks in synthesis18.21
      • •Preparing and purifying organic compounds18.22
      • •Accurate mass spectrometry and molecular identification19.1
      • •Carbon-13 NMR and carbon environments19.2
      • •Interpreting carbon-13 NMR spectra19.3
      • •High-resolution proton NMR and hydrogen environments19.4
      • •Interpreting proton NMR shifts, integrals and splitting patterns19.5
      • •Mobile and stationary phases in chromatography19.6
      • •Calculating Rf values19.7
      • •HPLC, gas chromatography and coupled mass spectrometry19.8

Calculating the pH of strong bases

Edexcel·Chemistry·12.12

Notes Coming Soon

The concept content for this specification point is being prepared. Check back soon.