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Notes/A-Level/Chemistry/Edexcel/Edexcel A-level Chemistry — 9CH0

Syllabus

Edexcel A-level Chemistry — 9CH0

    • •Atomic particles and structure1.1
    • •Relative masses and charges of subatomic particles1.2
    • •Atomic number and mass number1.3
    • •Counting subatomic particles in atoms, molecules and ions1.4
    • •Isotopes1.5
    • •Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass1.6
    • •Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass1.7
    • •Isotopic abundances and relative atomic mass from mass spectra1.8
    • •Mass spectra of diatomic molecules1.9
    • •Molecular mass from the molecular ion peak1.10
    • •First and successive ionisation energies1.11
    • •Factors affecting ionisation energy1.12
    • •Ionisation energy trends across a period1.13
    • •Ionisation energy trends down a group1.14
    • •Spectroscopic evidence for shells and subshells1.15
    • •Electron capacities of the first four shells1.16
    • •Orbitals and electron spin1.17
    • •Shapes of s and p orbitals1.18
    • •Electron capacities of s, p and d subshells1.19
    • •Subshell filling and electron pairing1.20
    • •Electronic configurations of atoms and ions1.21
    • •The s, p and d blocks1.22
    • •Electronic configuration and chemical properties1.23
    • •The meaning of periodicity1.24
    • •Period 2 and 3 property trends1.25
    • •Using data to illustrate periodicity1.26
      • •The nature of ionic bonding2.1
      • •Ionic radius, charge and bond strength2.2
      • •Ion formation by electron loss and gain2.3
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of ions2.4
      • •Trends in ionic radii2.5
      • •Experimental evidence for ions2.6
      • •The nature of covalent bonding2.7
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent and coordinate bonds2.8
      • •Covalent bond lengths and strengths2.9
      • •Electron-pair repulsion and molecular shape2.10
      • •Shapes and bond angles with up to six electron pairs2.11
      • •Predicting unfamiliar molecular shapes and bond angles2.12
      • •Electronegativity2.13
      • •The bonding continuum and bond polarity2.14
      • •Predicting molecular polarity2.15
      • •Types of intermolecular forces2.16
      • •Hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride2.17
      • •Hydrogen bonding and anomalous properties of water2.18
      • •Predicting hydrogen bonding2.19
      • •Intermolecular forces and boiling temperature trends2.20
      • •Choosing solvents using intermolecular forces2.21
      • •The nature of metallic bonding2.22
      • •Giant ionic, covalent and metallic lattices2.23
      • •Simple molecular structures2.24
      • •Diamond, graphite and graphene2.25
      • •Deducing structure and bonding from data2.26
      • •Predicting physical properties from structure and bonding2.27
    • •The meaning of oxidation number3.1
    • •Calculating oxidation numbers3.2
    • •Electron transfer and changes in oxidation number3.3
    • •Oxidation as electron loss and reduction as electron gain3.4
    • •Oxidising agents as electron acceptors3.5
    • •Reducing agents as electron donors3.6
    • •Disproportionation3.7
    • •Classifying redox and disproportionation reactions3.8
    • •Roman numerals for oxidation states3.9
    • •Writing formulae from oxidation numbers3.10
    • •Metals, positive ions and oxidation3.11
    • •Non-metals, negative ions and reduction3.12
    • •Ionic half-equations and full ionic equations3.13
      • •Group 2 ionisation energy trends4.1
      • •Group 2 reactivity trends4.2
      • •Reactions of Group 2 elements with oxygen, chlorine and water4.3
      • •Reactions of Group 2 oxides and hydroxides4.4
      • •Solubility trends of Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates4.5
      • •Thermal stability of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates4.6
      • •Flame colours and electron transitions4.7
      • •Investigating thermal decomposition and flame colours4.8
      • •Physical property and electronegativity trends in Group 74.9
      • •Group 7 reactivity trends4.10
      • •Halogen displacement reactions4.11
      • •Oxidation and disproportionation reactions of halogens4.12
      • •Reactions and tests involving halides and hydrogen halides4.13
      • •Predicting fluorine and astatine chemistry4.14
      • •Tests for inorganic ions4.15
    • •The mole as the unit of amount of substance5.1
    • •Calculations using the Avogadro constant5.2
    • •Molar mass5.3
    • •Empirical and molecular formulae5.4
    • •Determining formulae from experimental data and gas measurements5.5
    • •Balanced full and ionic equations with state symbols5.6
    • •Amount calculations using mass, gas volume and solution concentration5.7
    • •Reacting mass calculations5.8
    • •Reacting gas volumes and amounts of substance5.9
    • •Reacting gas volumes using molar volume5.10
    • •Solution concentrations and acid-base titrations5.11
    • •Measurement errors, uncertainties and sources of error5.12
    • •Minimising percentage error and uncertainty5.13
    • •Percentage yield and atom economy5.14
    • •Relating equations to test-tube observations5.15
    • •Practical hazards, risks and precautions5.16
      • •Hydrocarbons6.1
      • •Representing organic molecules using formulae6.2
      • •Homologous series and functional groups6.3
      • •IUPAC nomenclature6.4
      • •Classifying organic reactions6.5
      • •Structural isomerism6.6
      • •Stereoisomerism and E/Z isomers6.7
      • •The general formula of alkanes6.8
      • •Saturated alkanes and cycloalkanes6.9
      • •Fractional distillation, cracking and reforming6.10
      • •Pollutants from alkane combustion6.11
      • •Health and environmental effects of combustion pollutants6.12
      • •Catalytic converters and pollution control6.13
      • •Renewable alternative fuels6.14
      • •Radicals and homolytic bond fission6.15
      • •Alkane combustion and radical substitution mechanisms6.16
      • •Limitations of radical substitution in synthesis6.17
      • •The general formula of alkenes6.18
      • •Unsaturated alkenes and cycloalkenes6.19
      • •Sigma and pi bonding in alkenes6.20
      • •Electrophiles6.21
      • •Addition and oxidation reactions of alkenes6.22
      • •Heterolytic bond fission6.23
      • •Electrophilic addition mechanisms and carbocation stability6.24
      • •Testing for a carbon-carbon double bond6.25
      • •Addition polymerisation and repeat units6.26
      • •Separating and processing waste polymers6.27
      • •Sustainable use of polymer materials6.28
      • •Biodegradable polymers and controlling incineration gases6.29
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.30
      • •Nucleophiles6.31
      • •Substitution and elimination reactions of halogenoalkanes6.32
      • •Comparing halogenoalkane hydrolysis rates experimentally6.33
      • •Reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.34
      • •Carbon-halogen bond enthalpy and reactivity6.35
      • •Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms of primary halogenoalkanes6.36
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols6.37
      • •Combustion, halogenation, oxidation and dehydration of alcohols6.38
      • •Preparing and purifying liquid organic compounds6.39
      • •Interpreting molecular ions and fragmentation patterns7.1
      • •Identifying functional groups using infrared spectroscopy7.2
    • •Standard conditions8.1
    • •Enthalpy change at constant pressure8.2
    • •Enthalpy level diagrams8.3
    • •Standard enthalpies of reaction, formation, combustion and neutralisation8.4
    • •Calorimetry experiments, assumptions and errors8.5
    • •Calculating molar enthalpy changes from experimental data8.6
    • •Constructing Hess cycles8.7
    • •Calculating enthalpy changes using Hess's law8.8
    • •Bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy8.9
    • •Reaction enthalpies from mean bond enthalpies and their limitations8.10
    • •Determining mean bond enthalpies from reaction enthalpies8.11
    • •Collision theory and factors affecting reaction rate9.1
    • •Activation energy and successful collisions9.2
    • •Calculating reaction rates from times and graphs9.3
    • •Temperature and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.4
    • •Catalysts and alternative reaction pathways9.5
    • •Catalysed and uncatalysed reaction profiles9.6
    • •Catalysts and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.7
    • •Heterogeneous catalysis in industrial gas reactions9.8
    • •Economic benefits of industrial catalysts9.9
    • •Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium10.1
    • •Effects of temperature, concentration and pressure on equilibrium10.2
    • •Industrial compromises between yield and reaction rate10.3
    • •Writing Kc expressions10.4
    • •Writing Kp expressions11.1
    • •Calculating Kc and Kp from experimental data11.2
    • •Temperature changes and equilibrium constants11.3
    • •Equilibrium position and temperature-dependent constants11.4
    • •Why concentration, pressure and catalysts do not change equilibrium constants11.5
    • •Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases12.1
    • •Acid-base reactions as proton transfer12.2
    • •Conjugate acid-base pairs12.3
    • •The definition of pH12.4
    • •Calculating pH from hydrogen ion concentration12.5
    • •Calculating hydrogen ion concentration from pH12.6
    • •Strong and weak acids12.7
    • •Calculating the pH of strong acids12.8
    • •The acid dissociation constant Ka12.9
    • •Calculating the pH of weak acids12.10
    • •The ionic product of water Kw12.11
    • •Calculating the pH of strong bases12.12
    • •pKa and pKw12.13
    • •Comparing experimental pH values and dilution effects12.14
    • •Determining Ka from experimental pH and acid mass12.15
    • •Drawing and interpreting acid-base titration curves12.16
    • •Choosing indicators from titration curves12.17
    • •The meaning of a buffer solution12.18
    • •Buffer action12.19
    • •Calculating buffer pH12.20
    • •Preparing buffers of a specified pH12.21
    • •Buffer regions and determining Ka from titration curves12.22
    • •Neutralisation enthalpies of strong and weak acids12.23
    • •Carbonic acid and hydrogencarbonate buffering in blood12.24
      • •The definition of lattice energy13.1
      • •Enthalpy of atomisation and electron affinity13.2
      • •Born–Haber cycles and calculations13.3
      • •Lattice energy and ionic bond strength13.4
      • •Experimental and theoretical lattice energies and covalent character13.5
      • •Polarisation of ions13.6
      • •Factors affecting cation polarising power13.7
      • •Factors affecting anion polarisability13.8
      • •Enthalpies of solution and hydration13.9
      • •Energy cycles involving solution, hydration and lattice energy13.10
      • •Ionic charge and radius effects on lattice and hydration energies13.11
      • •Why enthalpy alone does not determine feasibility13.12
      • •Entropy, disorder and the direction of change13.13
      • •Entropy changes in physical and chemical processes13.14
      • •System, surroundings and total entropy change13.15
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the system13.16
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the surroundings and total entropy13.17
      • •Gibbs energy, enthalpy and entropy13.18
      • •Predicting feasibility and feasible temperatures using Gibbs energy13.19
      • •Gibbs energy and equilibrium constants13.20
      • •Why negative Gibbs energy does not guarantee a reaction13.21
      • •Kinetic inhibition of thermodynamically feasible reactions13.22
    • •Electron transfer in s-, p- and d-block redox reactions14.1
    • •Oxidation-number changes in s-, p- and d-block reactions14.2
    • •The meaning of standard electrode potential14.3
    • •Standard conditions for electrode potentials14.4
    • •The standard hydrogen electrode and reference potentials14.5
    • •Measuring standard electrode potentials14.6
    • •Calculating standard cell emf14.7
    • •Writing conventional cell diagrams14.8
    • •Conditions and measured electrode potentials14.9
    • •Predicting reaction feasibility using electrode potentials14.10
    • •Cell emf, total entropy change and equilibrium constants14.11
    • •Limitations of electrode-potential predictions14.12
    • •The electrochemical series14.13
    • •Disproportionation and electrode potentials14.14
    • •Electrode potentials and storage cells14.15
    • •Fuel cells and electrical energy14.16
    • •Electrode reactions in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells14.17
    • •Redox titration calculations14.18
    • •Methods used in redox titrations14.19
      • •Electronic configurations of Period 4 d-block atoms and ions15.1
      • •The definition of a transition metal15.2
      • •Variable oxidation states in transition metals15.3
      • •The meaning of a ligand15.4
      • •Coordinate bonding in complex ions15.5
      • •The structure of a complex ion15.6
      • •Coloured transition-metal ions in solution15.7
      • •Ligand-induced d-orbital splitting and colour15.8
      • •Why some metal ions and complexes are colourless15.9
      • •Factors causing colour changes in transition-metal ions15.10
      • •Coordination number15.11
      • •Water, hydroxide and ammonia as monodentate ligands15.12
      • •Octahedral complexes with coordination number six15.13
      • •Tetrahedral complexes with large ligands15.14
      • •Square planar complexes and cis-platin15.15
      • •Cis-platin isomerism and cancer treatment15.16
      • •Bidentate and multidentate ligands15.17
      • •Haemoglobin as an iron(II) complex15.18
      • •Carbon monoxide ligand exchange in haemoglobin15.19
      • •Colours of vanadium oxidation states15.20
      • •Vanadium redox reactions and electrode potentials15.21
      • •Redox interconversions of chromium ions15.22
      • •The chromate-dichromate equilibrium15.23
      • •Metal-ion reactions with hydroxide and ammonia15.24
      • •Distinguishing ligand exchange from amphoteric behaviour15.25
      • •Ligand exchange and colour changes in copper and cobalt complexes15.26
      • •Ligand size, charge and coordination-number changes15.27
      • •The chelate effect and entropy15.28
      • •Transition metals as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts15.29
      • •The action of heterogeneous catalysts15.30
      • •Vanadium(V) oxide catalysis in the contact process15.31
      • •Catalytic converters: adsorption, reaction and desorption15.32
      • •Homogeneous catalysts and intermediates15.33
      • •Iron(II) catalysis of the iodide-peroxodisulfate reaction15.34
      • •Manganese(II) autocatalysis of the manganate(VII)-ethanedioate reaction15.35
    • •Key terms in reaction kinetics and catalysis16.1
    • •Determining and using rate equations16.2
    • •Selecting experimental techniques for rate measurements16.3
    • •Initial-rate and continuous-monitoring experiments16.4
    • •First-order reaction rates and half-lives from graphs16.5
    • •Determining reaction orders from graphs16.6
    • •Determining reaction orders from initial-rate data16.7
    • •Iodination of propanone: orders and mechanism16.8
    • •Rate equations and rate-determining steps16.9
    • •Deducing reaction mechanisms from kinetic and stoichiometric data16.10
    • •Rate evidence for SN1 and SN2 hydrolysis mechanisms16.11
    • •Determining activation energy using graphical methods16.12
      • •Chirality and optical isomerism17.1
      • •Asymmetric carbon atoms and non-superimposable mirror images17.2
      • •Optical activity and plane-polarised light17.3
      • •Racemic mixtures17.4
      • •Optical evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms17.5
      • •Identifying aldehyde and ketone functional groups17.6
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carbonyl compounds17.7
      • •Reactions and tests of aldehydes and ketones17.8
      • •Identifying the carboxylic acid functional group17.9
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carboxylic acids17.10
      • •Preparing carboxylic acids17.11
      • •Reactions of carboxylic acids17.12
      • •Identifying acyl chloride and ester functional groups17.13
      • •Reactions of acyl chlorides17.14
      • •Acidic and alkaline hydrolysis of esters17.15
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyesters17.16
      • •Kekulé and delocalised models of benzene18.1
      • •Evidence for delocalised bonding in benzene18.2
      • •Resistance of benzene to bromination18.3
      • •Combustion and substitution reactions of benzene18.4
      • •Electrophilic substitution mechanisms of benzene18.5
      • •The reaction of phenol with bromine water18.6
      • •Comparing the bromination of phenol and benzene18.7
      • •Identifying amines, amides and amino acids18.8
      • •Reactions of primary aliphatic amines18.9
      • •Comparing the basicity of ammonia and amines18.10
      • •Preparing primary aliphatic amines18.11
      • •Reducing aromatic nitro-compounds to amines18.12
      • •Preparing amides from acyl chlorides18.13
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyamides18.14
      • •Repeat units of condensation polymers18.15
      • •Zwitterions, acid-base behaviour and optical activity of amino acids18.16
      • •Peptide bonds, protein hydrolysis and amino acid separation18.17
      • •Deducing organic formulae and structures from combined evidence18.18
      • •Planning multistep organic syntheses18.19
      • •Extending carbon chains using Grignard reagents18.20
      • •Selecting practical procedures and controlling risks in synthesis18.21
      • •Preparing and purifying organic compounds18.22
      • •Accurate mass spectrometry and molecular identification19.1
      • •Carbon-13 NMR and carbon environments19.2
      • •Interpreting carbon-13 NMR spectra19.3
      • •High-resolution proton NMR and hydrogen environments19.4
      • •Interpreting proton NMR shifts, integrals and splitting patterns19.5
      • •Mobile and stationary phases in chromatography19.6
      • •Calculating Rf values19.7
      • •HPLC, gas chromatography and coupled mass spectrometry19.8

Syllabus

Edexcel A-level Chemistry — 9CH0

    • •Atomic particles and structure1.1
    • •Relative masses and charges of subatomic particles1.2
    • •Atomic number and mass number1.3
    • •Counting subatomic particles in atoms, molecules and ions1.4
    • •Isotopes1.5
    • •Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass1.6
    • •Relative molecular mass and relative formula mass1.7
    • •Isotopic abundances and relative atomic mass from mass spectra1.8
    • •Mass spectra of diatomic molecules1.9
    • •Molecular mass from the molecular ion peak1.10
    • •First and successive ionisation energies1.11
    • •Factors affecting ionisation energy1.12
    • •Ionisation energy trends across a period1.13
    • •Ionisation energy trends down a group1.14
    • •Spectroscopic evidence for shells and subshells1.15
    • •Electron capacities of the first four shells1.16
    • •Orbitals and electron spin1.17
    • •Shapes of s and p orbitals1.18
    • •Electron capacities of s, p and d subshells1.19
    • •Subshell filling and electron pairing1.20
    • •Electronic configurations of atoms and ions1.21
    • •The s, p and d blocks1.22
    • •Electronic configuration and chemical properties1.23
    • •The meaning of periodicity1.24
    • •Period 2 and 3 property trends1.25
    • •Using data to illustrate periodicity1.26
      • •The nature of ionic bonding2.1
      • •Ionic radius, charge and bond strength2.2
      • •Ion formation by electron loss and gain2.3
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of ions2.4
      • •Trends in ionic radii2.5
      • •Experimental evidence for ions2.6
      • •The nature of covalent bonding2.7
      • •Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent and coordinate bonds2.8
      • •Covalent bond lengths and strengths2.9
      • •Electron-pair repulsion and molecular shape2.10
      • •Shapes and bond angles with up to six electron pairs2.11
      • •Predicting unfamiliar molecular shapes and bond angles2.12
      • •Electronegativity2.13
      • •The bonding continuum and bond polarity2.14
      • •Predicting molecular polarity2.15
      • •Types of intermolecular forces2.16
      • •Hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride2.17
      • •Hydrogen bonding and anomalous properties of water2.18
      • •Predicting hydrogen bonding2.19
      • •Intermolecular forces and boiling temperature trends2.20
      • •Choosing solvents using intermolecular forces2.21
      • •The nature of metallic bonding2.22
      • •Giant ionic, covalent and metallic lattices2.23
      • •Simple molecular structures2.24
      • •Diamond, graphite and graphene2.25
      • •Deducing structure and bonding from data2.26
      • •Predicting physical properties from structure and bonding2.27
    • •The meaning of oxidation number3.1
    • •Calculating oxidation numbers3.2
    • •Electron transfer and changes in oxidation number3.3
    • •Oxidation as electron loss and reduction as electron gain3.4
    • •Oxidising agents as electron acceptors3.5
    • •Reducing agents as electron donors3.6
    • •Disproportionation3.7
    • •Classifying redox and disproportionation reactions3.8
    • •Roman numerals for oxidation states3.9
    • •Writing formulae from oxidation numbers3.10
    • •Metals, positive ions and oxidation3.11
    • •Non-metals, negative ions and reduction3.12
    • •Ionic half-equations and full ionic equations3.13
      • •Group 2 ionisation energy trends4.1
      • •Group 2 reactivity trends4.2
      • •Reactions of Group 2 elements with oxygen, chlorine and water4.3
      • •Reactions of Group 2 oxides and hydroxides4.4
      • •Solubility trends of Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates4.5
      • •Thermal stability of Group 1 and 2 nitrates and carbonates4.6
      • •Flame colours and electron transitions4.7
      • •Investigating thermal decomposition and flame colours4.8
      • •Physical property and electronegativity trends in Group 74.9
      • •Group 7 reactivity trends4.10
      • •Halogen displacement reactions4.11
      • •Oxidation and disproportionation reactions of halogens4.12
      • •Reactions and tests involving halides and hydrogen halides4.13
      • •Predicting fluorine and astatine chemistry4.14
      • •Tests for inorganic ions4.15
    • •The mole as the unit of amount of substance5.1
    • •Calculations using the Avogadro constant5.2
    • •Molar mass5.3
    • •Empirical and molecular formulae5.4
    • •Determining formulae from experimental data and gas measurements5.5
    • •Balanced full and ionic equations with state symbols5.6
    • •Amount calculations using mass, gas volume and solution concentration5.7
    • •Reacting mass calculations5.8
    • •Reacting gas volumes and amounts of substance5.9
    • •Reacting gas volumes using molar volume5.10
    • •Solution concentrations and acid-base titrations5.11
    • •Measurement errors, uncertainties and sources of error5.12
    • •Minimising percentage error and uncertainty5.13
    • •Percentage yield and atom economy5.14
    • •Relating equations to test-tube observations5.15
    • •Practical hazards, risks and precautions5.16
      • •Hydrocarbons6.1
      • •Representing organic molecules using formulae6.2
      • •Homologous series and functional groups6.3
      • •IUPAC nomenclature6.4
      • •Classifying organic reactions6.5
      • •Structural isomerism6.6
      • •Stereoisomerism and E/Z isomers6.7
      • •The general formula of alkanes6.8
      • •Saturated alkanes and cycloalkanes6.9
      • •Fractional distillation, cracking and reforming6.10
      • •Pollutants from alkane combustion6.11
      • •Health and environmental effects of combustion pollutants6.12
      • •Catalytic converters and pollution control6.13
      • •Renewable alternative fuels6.14
      • •Radicals and homolytic bond fission6.15
      • •Alkane combustion and radical substitution mechanisms6.16
      • •Limitations of radical substitution in synthesis6.17
      • •The general formula of alkenes6.18
      • •Unsaturated alkenes and cycloalkenes6.19
      • •Sigma and pi bonding in alkenes6.20
      • •Electrophiles6.21
      • •Addition and oxidation reactions of alkenes6.22
      • •Heterolytic bond fission6.23
      • •Electrophilic addition mechanisms and carbocation stability6.24
      • •Testing for a carbon-carbon double bond6.25
      • •Addition polymerisation and repeat units6.26
      • •Separating and processing waste polymers6.27
      • •Sustainable use of polymer materials6.28
      • •Biodegradable polymers and controlling incineration gases6.29
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.30
      • •Nucleophiles6.31
      • •Substitution and elimination reactions of halogenoalkanes6.32
      • •Comparing halogenoalkane hydrolysis rates experimentally6.33
      • •Reactivity of primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes6.34
      • •Carbon-halogen bond enthalpy and reactivity6.35
      • •Nucleophilic substitution mechanisms of primary halogenoalkanes6.36
      • •Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols6.37
      • •Combustion, halogenation, oxidation and dehydration of alcohols6.38
      • •Preparing and purifying liquid organic compounds6.39
      • •Interpreting molecular ions and fragmentation patterns7.1
      • •Identifying functional groups using infrared spectroscopy7.2
    • •Standard conditions8.1
    • •Enthalpy change at constant pressure8.2
    • •Enthalpy level diagrams8.3
    • •Standard enthalpies of reaction, formation, combustion and neutralisation8.4
    • •Calorimetry experiments, assumptions and errors8.5
    • •Calculating molar enthalpy changes from experimental data8.6
    • •Constructing Hess cycles8.7
    • •Calculating enthalpy changes using Hess's law8.8
    • •Bond enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy8.9
    • •Reaction enthalpies from mean bond enthalpies and their limitations8.10
    • •Determining mean bond enthalpies from reaction enthalpies8.11
    • •Collision theory and factors affecting reaction rate9.1
    • •Activation energy and successful collisions9.2
    • •Calculating reaction rates from times and graphs9.3
    • •Temperature and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.4
    • •Catalysts and alternative reaction pathways9.5
    • •Catalysed and uncatalysed reaction profiles9.6
    • •Catalysts and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution9.7
    • •Heterogeneous catalysis in industrial gas reactions9.8
    • •Economic benefits of industrial catalysts9.9
    • •Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium10.1
    • •Effects of temperature, concentration and pressure on equilibrium10.2
    • •Industrial compromises between yield and reaction rate10.3
    • •Writing Kc expressions10.4
    • •Writing Kp expressions11.1
    • •Calculating Kc and Kp from experimental data11.2
    • •Temperature changes and equilibrium constants11.3
    • •Equilibrium position and temperature-dependent constants11.4
    • •Why concentration, pressure and catalysts do not change equilibrium constants11.5
    • •Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases12.1
    • •Acid-base reactions as proton transfer12.2
    • •Conjugate acid-base pairs12.3
    • •The definition of pH12.4
    • •Calculating pH from hydrogen ion concentration12.5
    • •Calculating hydrogen ion concentration from pH12.6
    • •Strong and weak acids12.7
    • •Calculating the pH of strong acids12.8
    • •The acid dissociation constant Ka12.9
    • •Calculating the pH of weak acids12.10
    • •The ionic product of water Kw12.11
    • •Calculating the pH of strong bases12.12
    • •pKa and pKw12.13
    • •Comparing experimental pH values and dilution effects12.14
    • •Determining Ka from experimental pH and acid mass12.15
    • •Drawing and interpreting acid-base titration curves12.16
    • •Choosing indicators from titration curves12.17
    • •The meaning of a buffer solution12.18
    • •Buffer action12.19
    • •Calculating buffer pH12.20
    • •Preparing buffers of a specified pH12.21
    • •Buffer regions and determining Ka from titration curves12.22
    • •Neutralisation enthalpies of strong and weak acids12.23
    • •Carbonic acid and hydrogencarbonate buffering in blood12.24
      • •The definition of lattice energy13.1
      • •Enthalpy of atomisation and electron affinity13.2
      • •Born–Haber cycles and calculations13.3
      • •Lattice energy and ionic bond strength13.4
      • •Experimental and theoretical lattice energies and covalent character13.5
      • •Polarisation of ions13.6
      • •Factors affecting cation polarising power13.7
      • •Factors affecting anion polarisability13.8
      • •Enthalpies of solution and hydration13.9
      • •Energy cycles involving solution, hydration and lattice energy13.10
      • •Ionic charge and radius effects on lattice and hydration energies13.11
      • •Why enthalpy alone does not determine feasibility13.12
      • •Entropy, disorder and the direction of change13.13
      • •Entropy changes in physical and chemical processes13.14
      • •System, surroundings and total entropy change13.15
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the system13.16
      • •Calculating entropy changes of the surroundings and total entropy13.17
      • •Gibbs energy, enthalpy and entropy13.18
      • •Predicting feasibility and feasible temperatures using Gibbs energy13.19
      • •Gibbs energy and equilibrium constants13.20
      • •Why negative Gibbs energy does not guarantee a reaction13.21
      • •Kinetic inhibition of thermodynamically feasible reactions13.22
    • •Electron transfer in s-, p- and d-block redox reactions14.1
    • •Oxidation-number changes in s-, p- and d-block reactions14.2
    • •The meaning of standard electrode potential14.3
    • •Standard conditions for electrode potentials14.4
    • •The standard hydrogen electrode and reference potentials14.5
    • •Measuring standard electrode potentials14.6
    • •Calculating standard cell emf14.7
    • •Writing conventional cell diagrams14.8
    • •Conditions and measured electrode potentials14.9
    • •Predicting reaction feasibility using electrode potentials14.10
    • •Cell emf, total entropy change and equilibrium constants14.11
    • •Limitations of electrode-potential predictions14.12
    • •The electrochemical series14.13
    • •Disproportionation and electrode potentials14.14
    • •Electrode potentials and storage cells14.15
    • •Fuel cells and electrical energy14.16
    • •Electrode reactions in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells14.17
    • •Redox titration calculations14.18
    • •Methods used in redox titrations14.19
      • •Electronic configurations of Period 4 d-block atoms and ions15.1
      • •The definition of a transition metal15.2
      • •Variable oxidation states in transition metals15.3
      • •The meaning of a ligand15.4
      • •Coordinate bonding in complex ions15.5
      • •The structure of a complex ion15.6
      • •Coloured transition-metal ions in solution15.7
      • •Ligand-induced d-orbital splitting and colour15.8
      • •Why some metal ions and complexes are colourless15.9
      • •Factors causing colour changes in transition-metal ions15.10
      • •Coordination number15.11
      • •Water, hydroxide and ammonia as monodentate ligands15.12
      • •Octahedral complexes with coordination number six15.13
      • •Tetrahedral complexes with large ligands15.14
      • •Square planar complexes and cis-platin15.15
      • •Cis-platin isomerism and cancer treatment15.16
      • •Bidentate and multidentate ligands15.17
      • •Haemoglobin as an iron(II) complex15.18
      • •Carbon monoxide ligand exchange in haemoglobin15.19
      • •Colours of vanadium oxidation states15.20
      • •Vanadium redox reactions and electrode potentials15.21
      • •Redox interconversions of chromium ions15.22
      • •The chromate-dichromate equilibrium15.23
      • •Metal-ion reactions with hydroxide and ammonia15.24
      • •Distinguishing ligand exchange from amphoteric behaviour15.25
      • •Ligand exchange and colour changes in copper and cobalt complexes15.26
      • •Ligand size, charge and coordination-number changes15.27
      • •The chelate effect and entropy15.28
      • •Transition metals as heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts15.29
      • •The action of heterogeneous catalysts15.30
      • •Vanadium(V) oxide catalysis in the contact process15.31
      • •Catalytic converters: adsorption, reaction and desorption15.32
      • •Homogeneous catalysts and intermediates15.33
      • •Iron(II) catalysis of the iodide-peroxodisulfate reaction15.34
      • •Manganese(II) autocatalysis of the manganate(VII)-ethanedioate reaction15.35
    • •Key terms in reaction kinetics and catalysis16.1
    • •Determining and using rate equations16.2
    • •Selecting experimental techniques for rate measurements16.3
    • •Initial-rate and continuous-monitoring experiments16.4
    • •First-order reaction rates and half-lives from graphs16.5
    • •Determining reaction orders from graphs16.6
    • •Determining reaction orders from initial-rate data16.7
    • •Iodination of propanone: orders and mechanism16.8
    • •Rate equations and rate-determining steps16.9
    • •Deducing reaction mechanisms from kinetic and stoichiometric data16.10
    • •Rate evidence for SN1 and SN2 hydrolysis mechanisms16.11
    • •Determining activation energy using graphical methods16.12
      • •Chirality and optical isomerism17.1
      • •Asymmetric carbon atoms and non-superimposable mirror images17.2
      • •Optical activity and plane-polarised light17.3
      • •Racemic mixtures17.4
      • •Optical evidence for SN1 and SN2 mechanisms17.5
      • •Identifying aldehyde and ketone functional groups17.6
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carbonyl compounds17.7
      • •Reactions and tests of aldehydes and ketones17.8
      • •Identifying the carboxylic acid functional group17.9
      • •Hydrogen bonding and physical properties of carboxylic acids17.10
      • •Preparing carboxylic acids17.11
      • •Reactions of carboxylic acids17.12
      • •Identifying acyl chloride and ester functional groups17.13
      • •Reactions of acyl chlorides17.14
      • •Acidic and alkaline hydrolysis of esters17.15
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyesters17.16
      • •Kekulé and delocalised models of benzene18.1
      • •Evidence for delocalised bonding in benzene18.2
      • •Resistance of benzene to bromination18.3
      • •Combustion and substitution reactions of benzene18.4
      • •Electrophilic substitution mechanisms of benzene18.5
      • •The reaction of phenol with bromine water18.6
      • •Comparing the bromination of phenol and benzene18.7
      • •Identifying amines, amides and amino acids18.8
      • •Reactions of primary aliphatic amines18.9
      • •Comparing the basicity of ammonia and amines18.10
      • •Preparing primary aliphatic amines18.11
      • •Reducing aromatic nitro-compounds to amines18.12
      • •Preparing amides from acyl chlorides18.13
      • •Condensation polymerisation to form polyamides18.14
      • •Repeat units of condensation polymers18.15
      • •Zwitterions, acid-base behaviour and optical activity of amino acids18.16
      • •Peptide bonds, protein hydrolysis and amino acid separation18.17
      • •Deducing organic formulae and structures from combined evidence18.18
      • •Planning multistep organic syntheses18.19
      • •Extending carbon chains using Grignard reagents18.20
      • •Selecting practical procedures and controlling risks in synthesis18.21
      • •Preparing and purifying organic compounds18.22
      • •Accurate mass spectrometry and molecular identification19.1
      • •Carbon-13 NMR and carbon environments19.2
      • •Interpreting carbon-13 NMR spectra19.3
      • •High-resolution proton NMR and hydrogen environments19.4
      • •Interpreting proton NMR shifts, integrals and splitting patterns19.5
      • •Mobile and stationary phases in chromatography19.6
      • •Calculating Rf values19.7
      • •HPLC, gas chromatography and coupled mass spectrometry19.8

Dot-and-cross diagrams of covalent and coordinate bonds

Edexcel·Chemistry·2.8

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